• Imperial Super Commandos
• Imperial Navy Commando
• Imperial Commandos Star Wars

It would also have been cool if they brought back the imperial commando escort carrier from rogue leader as inferno squad's ship. MercenaryAce, Apr 20, 2017 #19965. The2ndQuest likes this. The2ndQuest Tri-Mod With a Mouth Staff Member Manager. Registered: Jan 27, 2000. Pursue the Rebellion's subversive agents across the galaxy with the Imperial Assault Carrier Expansion Pack for X-Wing™!! Designed for use within the game’s Cinematic Play and Epic Play formats, the Imperial Assault Carrier Expansion Pack’s pre-painted Gozanti-class cruiser miniature comes accompanied by two TIE fighter escorts, eleven ship cards, and twenty-six upgrades. The often covert nature of these assignments necessitated the small fighter compliment and stealthy profile of the carrier ship itself. Although the Storm Commando Corp was rarely seen in front-line combat, the shortage of troops in the Imperial Remnant has pushed the Corp into areas of service not otherwise seen, prior to the Battle of Endor.

An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft.^[1] Typically, it is the capital ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to projectair power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Carriers have evolved since their inception in the early twentieth century from wooden vessels used to deploy balloons to nuclear-powered warships that carry numerous fighters, strike aircraft, helicopters, and other types of aircraft. While heavier aircraft such as fixed-wing gunships and bombers have been launched from aircraft carriers, it is currently not possible to land them. By its diplomatic and tactical power, its mobility, its autonomy and the variety of its means, the aircraft carrier is often the centerpiece of modern combat fleets. Tactically or even strategically, it replaced the battleship in the role of flagship of a fleet. One of its great advantages is that, by sailing in international waters, it does not interfere with any territorial sovereignty and thus obviates the need for overflight authorizations from third party countries, reduce the times and transit distances of aircraft and therefore significantly increase the time of availability on the combat zone.

There is no single definition of an 'aircraft carrier',^[2] and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers,^[3] and sometimes as distinct types of naval aviation-capable ships.^[2][4] Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, RN, former First Sea Lord (head) of the Royal Navy, has said, 'To put it simply, countries that aspire to strategic international influence have aircraft carriers.'^[5]Henry Kissinger, while United States Secretary of State, also said: 'An aircraft carrier is 100,000 tons of diplomacy'.^[6]

As of July 2019, there are 41 active aircraft carriers in the world operated by thirteen navies. The United States Navy has 11 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers—carrying around 80 fighter jets each—the largest carriers in the world; the total combined deckspace is over twice that of all other nations combined.^[7] As well as the aircraft carrier fleet, the U.S. Navy has nine amphibious assault ships used primarily for helicopters, although these also carry up to 20 vertical or short take-off and landing (V/STOL) fighter jets and are similar in size to medium-sized fleet carriers. China, France, India, Russia, and the UK each operate a single large/medium-size carrier, with capacity from 30 to 60 fighter jets. Italy operates two light fleet carriers and Spain operates one. Helicopter carriers are operated by Japan (4), France (3), Australia (2), Egypt (2), Brazil (1), South Korea (1), and Thailand (1). Future aircraft carriers are under construction or in planning by Brazil, China, India, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

• 1Types of carrier
• 2History
• 3Description
  • 3.2Flight deck
• 4National fleets
  • 4.1Australia
  • 4.2Brazil
  • 4.3China
  • 4.4Egypt
  • 4.5France
  • 4.6India
  • 4.7Italy
  • 4.8Japan
  • 4.9Russia
  • 4.10South Korea
  • 4.11Spain
  • 4.12Turkey
  • 4.13Thailand
  • 4.14United Kingdom
  • 4.15United States
• 5Aircraft carriers in preservation
• 6See also

Types of carrier[edit]

Basic types[edit]

• Balloon carrier and balloon tenders
• Seaplane tender and seaplane carriers

(note: some of the types listed here are not strictly defined as aircraft carriers by some sources)

By role[edit]

A fleet carrier is intended to operate with the main fleet and usually provides an offensive capability. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds. By comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried. Most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet but of smaller size with reduced aircraft capacity.

The Soviet aircraft carrier Admiral Kusnetsov was termed a heavy aircraft-carrying cruiser. This was primarily a legal construct to avoid the limitations of the Montreux Convention preventing 'aircraft carriers' transiting the Turkish Straits between the Soviet Black Sea bases and the Mediterranean. These ships, while sized in the range of large fleet carriers, were designed to deploy alone or with escorts. In addition to supporting fighter aircraft and helicopters, they provide both strong defensive weaponry and heavy offensive missiles equivalent to a guided missile cruiser.

By configuration[edit]

Aircraft carriers today are usually divided into the following four categories based on the way that aircraft take off and land:

• Catapult-assisted take-off barrier arrested-recovery (CATOBAR): these carriers generally carry the largest, heaviest, and most heavily armed aircraft, although smaller CATOBAR carriers may have other limitations (weight capacity of aircraft elevator, etc.). All CATOBAR carriers in service today are nuclear powered. Two nations currently operate carriers of this type: ten Nimitz class and one Gerald R. Ford class fleet carriers by the United States, and one medium-sized carrier by France, for a world total of twelve in service.
• Short take-off but arrested-recovery (STOBAR): these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads. STOBAR carrier air wings, such as the Sukhoi Su-33 and future Mikoyan MiG-29K wings of Admiral Kuznetsov are often geared primarily towards air superiority and fleet defense roles rather than strike/power projection tasks,^{[citation needed]} which require heavier payloads (bombs and air-to-ground missiles). Today China, India, and Russia each operate one carrier of this type – a total of three in service currently.
• Short take-off vertical-landing (STOVL): limited to carrying STOVL aircraft. STOVL aircraft, such as the Harrier Jump Jet family and Yakovlev Yak-38 generally have limited payloads, lower performance, and high fuel consumption when compared with conventional fixed-wing aircraft; however, a new generation of STOVL aircraft, currently consisting of the F-35B, has much improved performance. The US has nine STOVL amphibious assault ships. The UK has a class of two 65,000 ton^[8] STOVL aircraft carriers, HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales, the largest warships ever built for the Royal Navy; with one in service and the other being fitted out. Italy operates two in the light fleet role, and Spain operates one amphibious assault ship as a STOVL aircraft carrier, giving a total of thirteen STOVL carriers in active service; (Thailand has one active STOVL carrier but she no longer has any operational STOVL aircraft in inventory so is used and counted as a helicopter carrier).
• Helicopter carrier: Helicopter carriers have a similar appearance to other aircraft carriers but operate only helicopters – those that mainly operate helicopters but can also operate fixed-wing aircraft are known as STOVL carriers (see above). There are currently fourteen helicopter carriers (that solely operate helicopters and not fixed-wing aircraft), operated by seven navies, in commission today. Japan has four of this type, France three, Australia two, Egypt two, and South Korea, Thailand, and Brazil have one each. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy. Some helicopter carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships, tasked with landing and supporting ground forces on enemy territory.

By size[edit]

Supercarrier[edit]

The appellation 'supercarrier' is not an official designation with any national navy, but a term used predominantly by the media and typically when reporting on new and upcoming aircraft carrier types. It is also used when comparing carriers of various sizes and capabilities, both current and past. It was first used by The New York Times in 1938,^[10] in an article about the Royal Navy's HMS Ark Royal, that had a length of 209 metres (686 ft), a displacement of 22,000 tonnes and was designed to carry 72 aircraft.^[11][12] Since then, aircraft carriers have consistently grown in size, both in length and displacement, as well as improved capabilities; in defense, sensors, electronic warfare, propulsion, range, launch and recovery systems, number and types of aircraft carried and number of sorties flown per day.

While the current classes in service, or planned, with the navies of China, India, Russia, and the United Kingdom, with displacements ranging from 65,000^[8] to 85,000 tonnes,^[13] lengths ranging from 280 meters (920 ft)^[14] to 320 meters (1,050 ft)^[15] and varying capabilities, have been described as 'supercarriers',^{[16][17][18][13]} the largest 'supercarriers' currently in service are with the US Navy,^[19] with displacements exceeding 100,000 tonnes,^[19] lengths of over 337 meters (1,106 ft),^[19] and capabilities that match or exceed that of any other class.^{[20][21][22][23][24]}

Hull type identification symbols[edit]

Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers and related types of ship have been used. These include the pennant numbers used by the Royal Navy and some Commonwealth countries, the hull classification symbols used by the US, NATO and some other countries,^[25] and the Canadian hull classification symbols.

History[edit]

Origins[edit]

The 1903 advent of heavier-than-air fixed-wing aircraft with the Wright brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, was closely followed on 14 November 1910, by Eugene Burton Ely's first experimental take-off of a Curtiss Pusher airplane from the deck of a United States Navy ship, the cruiser USS Birmingham anchored off Norfolk Navy Base in Virginia. Two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss Pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiserUSS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay. On 9 May 1912, the first airplane take-off from a ship underway was made from the deck of the Royal Navy's pre-dreadnought battleship HMS Hibernia.^[26][27]Seaplane tender support ships came next, with the French Foudre of 1911. Early in World War I, the Imperial Japanese Navy ship Wakamiya conducted the world's first successful ship-launched air raid:^[28][29] on 6 September 1914, a Farman aircraft launched by Wakamiya attacked the Austro-Hungarian cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth and the Imperial German gunboat Jaguar in Kiaochow Bay off Tsingtao; neither was hit.^[30][31] The first carrier-launched airstrike was the Tondern Raid in July 1918. Seven Sopwith Camels launched from the converted battlecruiser HMS Furious damaged the German airbase at Tondern, Germany (modern day Tønder, Denmark) and destroyed two zeppelin airships.^[32]

The development of flattop vessels produced the first large fleet ships. In 1918, HMS Argus became the world's first carrier capable of launching and recovering naval aircraft.^[33] As a result of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, which limited the construction of new heavy surface combat ships, most early aircraft carriers were conversions of ships that were laid down (or had served) as different ship types: cargo ships, cruisers, battlecruisers, or battleships. These conversions gave rise to the US Lexington-class aircraft carriers (1927), Japanese Akagi, and British Courageous class. Specialist carrier evolution was well underway, with several navies ordering and building warships that were purposefully designed to function as aircraft carriers by the mid-1920s. This resulted in the commissioning of ships such as the Japanese Hōshō (1922),^[34] followed by HMS Hermes (1924, although laid down before Hōshō in 1918) and Béarn (1927). During World War II, these ships would become known as fleet carriers.^{[citation needed]}

World War II[edit]

The aircraft carrier dramatically changed naval warfare in World War II, because air power was becoming a significant factor in warfare. The advent of aircraft as focal weapons was driven by the superior range, flexibility, and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft. They had greater range and precision than naval guns, making them highly effective. The versatility of the carrier was demonstrated in November 1940, when HMS Illustrious launched a long-range strike on the Italian fleet at their base in Taranto, signalling the beginning of the effective and highly mobile aircraft strikes. This operation in the shallow water harbor incapacitated three of the anchored six battleships at a cost of two torpedo bombers.

World War II in the Pacific Ocean involved clashes between aircraft carrier fleets. The Japanese surprise attack on the American Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor naval / air bases on Sunday, 7 December 1941, was a clear illustration of the power projection capability afforded by a large force of modern carriers. Concentrating six carriers in a single unit turned naval history about, as no other nation had fielded anything comparable. Further versatility was demonstrated during the 'Doolittle Raid', on 18 April 1942, when US Navy carrier USS Hornet sailed to within 650 nautical miles (1,200 km) of Japan and launched 16 B-25 bombers from her deck in a retaliatory strike on the mainland, including the capital, Tokyo. However, the vulnerability of carriers compared to traditional battleships when forced into a gun-range encounter was quickly illustrated by the sinking of HMS Glorious by German battleships during the Norwegian campaign in 1940.

This new-found importance of naval aviation forced nations to create a number of carriers, in efforts to provide air superiority cover for every major fleet in order to ward off enemy aircraft. This extensive usage led to the development and construction of 'light' carriers. Escort aircraft carriers, such as USS Bogue, were sometimes purpose-built but most were converted from merchant ships as a stop-gap measure to provide anti-submarine air support for convoys and amphibious invasions. Following this concept, light aircraft carriers built by the U.S., such as USS Independence, represented a larger, more 'militarized' version of the escort carrier. Although with similar complement to escort carriers, they had the advantage of speed from their converted cruiser hulls. The UK 1942 Design Light Fleet Carrier was designed for building quickly by civilian shipyards and with an expected service life of about 3 years.^[35] They served the Royal Navy during the war, and the hull design was chosen for nearly all aircraft carrier equipped navies after the war, until the 1980s. Emergencies also spurred the creation or conversion of highly unconventional aircraft carriers. CAM ships were cargo-carrying merchant ships that could launch (but not retrieve) a single fighter aircraft from a catapult to defend the convoy from long range land-based German aircraft.

Postwar era[edit]

Imperial Super Commandos

Before World War II, international naval treaties of 1922, 1930, and 1936 limited the size of capital ships including carriers. Since World War II, aircraft carrier designs have increased in size to accommodate a steady increase in aircraft size. The large, modern Nimitz class of U.S.N. carriers has a displacement nearly four times that of the World War II–era USS Enterprise, yet its complement of aircraft is roughly the same—a consequence of the steadily increasing size and weight of individual military aircraft over the years. Today's aircraft carriers are so expensive that some nations which operate them risk significant political, economic, social and military impact if a carrier is lost, or is even sent to a potential crisis zone or used in conflict.^{[citation needed]}

Modern navies that operate such aircraft carriers treat them as the capital ship of the fleet, a role previously held by the sailing galleons, frigates and ships-of-the-line and later steam or diesel powered battleship. This change took place during World War II in response to air power becoming a significant factor in warfare, driven by the superior range, flexibility and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft. Following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance, and along with, carrier designs also increased in size and ability. Some of these larger carriers, dubbed by the media as 'supercarriers', displacing 75,000 tonnes or greater, have become the pinnacle of carrier development. Some are powered by nuclear reactors and form the core of a fleet designed to operate far from home. Amphibious assault ships, such as the Wasp and Mistral classes, serve the purpose of carrying and landing Marines, and operate a large contingent of helicopters for that purpose. Also known as 'commando carriers'^[36] or 'helicopter carriers', many have the capability to operate VSTOL aircraft.

Lacking the firepower of other warships, carriers by themselves are considered vulnerable to attack by other ships, aircraft, submarines, or missiles. Therefore, an aircraft carrier is generally accompanied by a number of other ships to provide protection for the relatively unwieldy carrier, to carry supplies and perform other support services, and to provide additional offensive capabilities. The resulting group of ships is often termed a battle group, carrier group, carrier battle group or carrier strike group.

There is a view among some military pundits that modern anti-ship weapons systems, such as torpedoes and missiles, or even ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads have made aircraft carriers and carrier groups obsolete as too vulnerable for modern combat.^[37] On the other hand, the threatening role of aircraft carriers has a place in modern asymmetric warfare, like the gunboat diplomacy of the past.^[38] Furthermore, aircraft carriers facilitate quick and precise projections of overwhelming military power into such local and regional conflicts.^[39]

Description[edit]

Structure[edit]

Carriers are large and long ships, although there is a high degree of variation depending on their intended role and aircraft complement. The size of the carrier has varied over history and among navies, to cater to the various roles that global climates have demanded from naval aviation.

Regardless of size, the ship itself must house their complement of aircraft, with space for launching, storing, and maintaining them. Space is also required for the large crew, supplies (food, munitions, fuel, engineering parts), and propulsion. US aircraft carriers are notable for having nuclear reactors powering their systems and propulsion. This makes the carrier reasonably tall.

The top of the carrier is the flight deck, where aircraft are launched and recovered. On the starboard side of this is the island, where air-traffic control and the bridge are located.

The constraints of constructing a flight deck affect the role of a given carrier strongly, as they influence the weight, type, and configuration of the aircraft that may be launched. For example, assisted launch mechanisms are used primarily for heavy aircraft, especially those loaded with air-to-ground weapons. CATOBAR is most commonly used on USN fleet carriers as it allows the deployment of heavy jets with full loadouts, especially on ground-attack missions. STOVL is used by other navies because it is cheaper to operate and still provides good deployment capability for fighter aircraft.

Due to the busy nature of the flight deck, only 20 or so aircraft may be on it at any one time. A hangar storage several decks below the flight deck is where most aircraft are kept, and aircraft are taken from the lower storage decks to the flight deck through the use of an elevator. The hangar is usually quite large and can take up several decks of vertical space.^[40]

Munitions are commonly stored on the lower decks because they are highly explosive. Usually this is below the water line so that the area can be flooded in case of emergency.

Flight deck[edit]

As 'runways at sea', aircraft carriers have a flat-top flight deck, which launches and recovers aircraft. Aircraft launch forward, into the wind, and are recovered from astern. The flight deck is where the most notable differences between a carrier and a land runway are found. Creating such a surface at sea poses constraints on the carrier. For example, the fact that it is a ship means that a full-length runway would be costly to construct and maintain. This affects take-off procedure, as a shorter runway length of the deck requires that aircraft accelerate more quickly to gain lift. This either requires a thrust boost, a vertical component to its velocity, or a reduced take-off load (to lower mass). The differing types of deck configuration, as above, influence the structure of the flight deck. The form of launch assistance a carrier provides is strongly related to the types of aircraft embarked and the design of the carrier itself.

There are two main philosophies in order to keep the deck short: add thrust to the aircraft, such as using a Catapult Assisted Take-Off (CATO-); and changing the direction of the airplanes' thrust, as in Vertical and/or Short Take-Off (V/STO-). Each method has advantages and disadvantages of its own:

• Catapult assisted take-off but arrested recovery (CATOBAR): A steam- or electric-powered catapult is connected to the aircraft, and is used to accelerate conventional aircraft to a safe flying speed. By the end of the catapult stroke, the aircraft is airborne and further propulsion is provided by its own engines. This is the most expensive method as it requires complex machinery to be installed under the flight deck, but allows for even heavily loaded aircraft to take off.
• Short take-off but arrested recovery (STOBAR) depends on increasing the net lift on the aircraft. Aircraft do not require catapult assistance for take off; instead on nearly all ships of this type an upwards vector is provided by a ski-jump at the forward end of the flight deck, often combined with thrust vectoring by the aircraft. Alternatively, by reducing the fuel and weapon load, an aircraft is able to reach faster speeds and generate more upwards lift and launch without a ski-jump or catapult.
• Short take-off vertical-landing (STOVL): On aircraft carriers, non-catapult-assisted, fixed-wing short takeoffs are accomplished with the use of thrust vectoring, which may also be used in conjunction with a runway 'ski-jump'. Use of STOVL tends to allow aircraft to carry a larger payload as compared to during VTOL use, while still only requiring a short runway. The most famous examples are the Hawker Siddeley Harrier and the Sea Harrier. Although technically VTOL aircraft, they are operationally STOVL aircraft due to the extra weight carried at take-off for fuel and armaments. The same is true of the F-35B Lightning II, which demonstrated VTOL capability in test flights but is operationally STOVL.
• Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL): Aircraft are specifically designed for the purpose of using very high degrees of thrust vectoring (e.g. if the thrust to weight-force ratio is greater than 1, it can take off vertically), but are usually slower than conventionally propelled aircraft.

On the recovery side of the flight deck, the adaptation to the aircraft loadout is mirrored. Non-VTOL or conventional aircraft cannot decelerate on their own, and almost all carriers using them must have arrested-recovery systems (-BAR, e.g. CATOBAR or STOBAR) to recover their aircraft. Aircraft that are landing extend a tailhook that catches on arrestor wires stretched across the deck to bring themselves to a stop in a short distance. Post-WWII Royal Navy research on safer CATOBAR recovery eventually led to universal adoption of a landing area angled off axis to allow aircraft who missed the arresting wires to 'bolt' and safely return to flight for another landing attempt rather than crashing into aircraft on the forward deck.

If the aircraft are VTOL-capable or helicopters, they do not need to decelerate and hence there is no such need. The arrested-recovery system has used an angled deck since the 1950s because, in case the aircraft does not catch the arresting wire, the short deck allows easier take off by reducing the number of objects between the aircraft and the end of the runway. It also has the advantage of separating the recovery operation area from the launch area. Helicopters and aircraft capable of vertical or short take-off and landing (V/STOL) usually recover by coming abreast of the carrier on the port side and then using their hover capability to move over the flight deck and land vertically without the need for arresting gear.

Staff and deck operations[edit]

Carriers steam at speed, up to 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph) into the wind during flight deck operations to increase wind speed over the deck to a safe minimum. This increase in effective wind speed provides a higher launch airspeed for aircraft at the end of the catapult stroke or ski-jump, as well as making recovery safer by reducing the difference between the relative speeds of the aircraft and ship.

Since the early 1950s on conventional carriers it has been the practice to recover aircraft at an angle to port of the axial line of the ship. The primary function of this angled deck is to allow aircraft that miss the arresting wires, referred to as a bolter, to become airborne again without the risk of hitting aircraft parked forward. The angled deck allows the installation of one or two 'waist' catapults in addition to the two bow cats. An angled deck also improves launch and recovery cycle flexibility with the option of simultaneous launching and recovery of aircraft.

Conventional ('tailhook') aircraft rely upon a landing signal officer (LSO, radio call sign paddles) to monitor the aircraft's approach, visually gauge glideslope, attitude, and airspeed, and transmit that data to the pilot. Before the angled deck emerged in the 1950s, LSOs used colored paddles to signal corrections to the pilot (hence the nickname). From the late 1950s onward, visual landing aids such as the optical landing system have provided information on proper glide slope, but LSOs still transmit voice calls to approaching pilots by radio.

Key personnel involved in the flight deck include the shooters, the handler, and the air boss. Shooters are naval aviators or naval flight officers and are responsible for launching aircraft. The handler works just inside the island from the flight deck and is responsible for the movement of aircraft before launching and after recovery. The 'air boss' (usually a commander) occupies the top bridge (Primary Flight Control, also called primary or the tower) and has the overall responsibility for controlling launch, recovery and 'those aircraft in the air near the ship, and the movement of planes on the flight deck, which itself resembles a well-choreographed ballet.'^[41] The captain of the ship spends most of his time one level below primary on the Navigation Bridge. Below this is the Flag Bridge, designated for the embarked admiral and his staff.

To facilitate working on the flight deck of a U.S. aircraft carrier, the sailors wear colored shirts that designate their responsibilities. There are at least seven different colors worn by flight deck personnel for modern United States Navy carrier air operations. Carrier operations of other nations use similar color schemes.

Deck structures[edit]

The superstructure of a carrier (such as the bridge, flight control tower) are concentrated in a relatively small area called an island, a feature pioneered on HMS Hermes in 1923. While the island is usually built on the starboard side of the flight deck, the Japanese aircraft carriers Akagi and Hiryū had their islands built on the port side. Very few carriers have been designed or built without an island. The flush deck configuration proved to have significant drawbacks, primary of which was management of the exhaust from the power plant. Fumes coming across the deck were a major issue in USS Langley. In addition, lack of an island meant difficulties managing the flight deck, performing air traffic control, a lack of radar housing placements and problems with navigating and controlling the ship itself.^[42]

Another deck structure that can be seen is a ski-jump ramp at the forward end of the flight deck. This was first developed to help launch STOVL aircraft take off at far higher weights than is possible with a vertical or rolling takeoff on flat decks. Originally developed by the Royal Navy, it since has been adopted by many navies for smaller carriers. A ski-jump ramp works by converting some of the forward rolling movement of the aircraft into vertical velocity and is sometimes combined with the aiming of jet thrust partly downwards. This allows heavily loaded and fueled aircraft a few more precious seconds to attain sufficient air velocity and lift to sustain normal flight. Without a ski-jump launching fully loaded and fueled aircraft such as the Harrier would not be possible on a smaller flat deck ship before either stalling out or crashing directly into the sea.

Although STOVL aircraft are capable of taking off vertically from a spot on the deck, using the ramp and a running start is far more fuel efficient and permits a heavier launch weight. As catapults are unnecessary, carriers with this arrangement reduce weight, complexity, and space needed for complex steam or electromagnetic launching equipment, vertical landing aircraft also remove the need for arresting cables and related hardware. Russian, Chinese, and future Indian carriers include a ski-jump ramp for launching lightly loaded conventional fighter aircraft but recover using traditional carrier arresting cables and a tailhook on their aircraft.

The disadvantage of the ski-jump is the penalty it exacts on aircraft size, payload, and fuel load (and thus range); heavily laden aircraft can not launch using a ski-jump because their high loaded weight requires either a longer takeoff roll than is possible on a carrier deck, or assistance from a catapult or JATO rocket. For example, the Russian Su-33 is only able to launch from the carrier Admiral Kuznetsov with a minimal armament and fuel load. Another disadvantage is on mixed flight deck operations where helicopters are also present such as a US landing helicopter dock or landing helicopter assault amphibious assault ship a ski jump is not included as this would eliminate one or more helicopter landing areas, this flat deck limits the loading of Harriers but is somewhat mitigated by the longer rolling start provided by a long flight deck compared to many STOVL carriers.

National fleets[edit]

The U.S. Navy has the largest carriers in the world, and currently has eleven in service. The UK has two 65,000 tonne STOVL carriers in sea trials. These will enter service in 2020. The navies of China, France, India, and Russia each operate a single medium-sized fleet carrier. The US has nine similarly sized Amphibious Warfare Ships. There are three small light carriers in use capable of operating both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, Italy operates two, and Spain one.

Additionally there are fourteen small carriers which only operate helicopters serving the navies of Australia (2), Brazil (1), Egypt (2), France (3), Japan (4), South Korea (1), and Thailand (1).

Australia[edit]

Current[edit]

The Canberra class of landing helicopter docks is based on the Spanish vessel Juan Carlos I. The two ship class, built by Navantia and BAE Systems Australia, represents the largest ships ever built for the Royal Australian Navy.^[43]

HMAS Canberra underwent sea trials in late 2013 and was commissioned in 2014. Her sister ship, HMAS Adelaide, was commissioned in December 2015. The Australian ships retain the ski-ramp from the Juan Carlos I design, although the RAN has not acquired carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft.

Brazil[edit]

Current[edit]

The Brazilian Navy commissioned the multi-purpose amphibious assault ship and helicopter carrier HMS Ocean on 29 June 2018 in the United Kingdom, which was renamed Atlântico. The helicopter carrier package for Brazil includes an Artisan 3D search radar, KH1007 surface surveillance radar system, four 30 mm DS30M Mk 2 remote weapon systems and four Mk 5B landing craft. However, the three original 20 mm Mk 15 Block 1B Phalanx close-in weapon systems, the torpedo defence systems and 7.62 mm M134 machine guns were removed from the ship before its transfer to Brazil.The ship displaces 21,578 tonnes, is 203.43 m long and has a range of 8,000 nautical miles. She has been undergoing maintenance work by Babcock and BAE Systems since February.Scheduled to reach its homeport, Arsenal do Rio de Janeiro (AMRJ), on 25 August, Atlântico will undergo operational sea training under the Royal Navy's Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST) programme.^[44][45][46]

It was reported in 2017 that Brazil was interested in purchasing Ocean from the UK as a replacement for São Paulo which was withdrawn from service in 2017 following multiple mechanical failures. The Royal Navy released an asking price of £80.3 million (US$105,800,871), which the Brazilian Navy called 'convenient'.^[47] In December 2017, the Brazilian Navy confirmed the purchase of Ocean for (GBP) £84.6 million (equivalent to R$359.5M and US$113.2M). The ship was decommissioned from Royal Navy service in March 2018, and after undertaking a period of maintenance in the United Kingdom, is expected to arrive in Rio de Janeiro by the end of 2018 with the intention of being fully operational by 2020.^[48][49][50]

China[edit]

Current[edit]

One STOBAR carrier: Liaoning was originally built as the 57,000 tonne Soviet Admiral Kuznetsov-class carrier Varyag^[51] and was later purchased as a stripped hulk by China in 1998 on the pretext of use as a floating casino, then partially rebuilt and towed to China for completion.^[52][53]Liaoning was commissioned on 25 September 2012, and began service for testing and training.^[54] On 24 or 25 November 2012, Liaoning successfully launched and recovered several Shenyang J-15 jet fighter aircraft.^[55][56][57] She is classified as a training ship, intended to allow the navy to practice with carrier usage. On 26 December 2012, the People's Daily reported that it will take four to five years for Liaoning to reach full capacity, mainly due to training and coordination which will take significant amount of time for Chinese PLA Navy to complete as this is the first aircraft carrier in their possession.^[58] As she is a training ship, Liaoning is not assigned to any of China's operation fleets.^[59]

Future[edit]

A second carrier was launched on 26 April 2017. She is the first to be built domestically, to a modified Kuznetsov-class design. The Type 001A aircraft carrier started sea trials on 23 April 2018,^[60] and is scheduled to enter service in 2020.^[61]

Chinese officials stated that a third carrier, also known as Type 002 carrier is being constructed in the Shanghai Jiangnan Shipyard. She will be the first Chinese aircraft carrier to use catapult take off system.^[62] In May 2019, the Centre for Strategic and International Studies released satellite images of what they said was the third carrier under construction at Jiangnan Shipyard near Shanghai.^[63][64]

Egypt[edit]

Current[edit]

Egypt signed a contract with French shipbuilder DCNS to buy two Mistral-class helicopter carriers for approximately 950 million euros. The two ships were originally destined for Russia, but the deal was canceled by France due to Russian involvement in Ukraine.^[65]

On 2 June 2016, Egypt received the first of two helicopter carriers acquired in October 2015, the landing helicopter dock Gamal Abdel Nasser. The flag transfer ceremony took place in the presence of Egyptian and French Navies' chiefs of staff, chairman and chief executive officers of both DCNS and STX France, and senior Egyptian and French officials.^[66] On 16 September 2016, DCNS delivered the second of two helicopter carriers, the landing helicopter dock Anwar El Sadat which also participated in a joint military exercise with the French Navy before arriving at its home port of Alexandria.^[67]

Egypt is so far the only country in Africa or the Middle East to possess an aircraft carrier.^[68]

France[edit]

Current[edit]

1 CATOBAR carrier: Charles de Gaulle is a 42,000 tonne nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, commissioned in 2001 and is the flagship of the French Navy (Marine Nationale). The ship carries a complement of Dassault Rafale M and E‑2C Hawkeye aircraft, EC725 Caracal and AS532 Cougar helicopters for combat search and rescue, as well as modern electronics and Aster missiles. She is a CATOBAR-type carrier that uses two 75 m C13‑3 steam catapults of a shorter version of the catapult system installed on the U.S. Nimitz-class carriers, one catapult at the bow and one across the front of the landing area.^[69]

3 amphibious assault ships: Mistral class, 21,500 tonne full deck amphibious assault ships with hospital and well deck.^[70]

India[edit]

Current[edit]

1 STOBAR carrier: INS Vikramaditya, 45,400 tonnes, modified Kiev class. The carrier was purchased by India on 20 January 2004 after years of negotiations at a final price of $2.35 billion. The ship successfully completed her sea trials in July 2013 and aviation trials in September 2013. She was formally commissioned on 16 November 2013 at a ceremony held at Severodvinsk, Russia.^[71]

Future[edit]

India started the construction of INS Vikrant, a 40,000-tonne, 260-metre-long (850 ft) aircraft carrier in 2009.^[72] The new carrier will operate MiG-29K and naval HAL Tejas aircraft along with the Indian-made helicopter HAL Dhruv.^[72] The ship will be powered by four gas-turbine engines and will have a range of 8,000 nautical miles (15,000 kilometres), carrying 160 officers, 1,400 sailors, and 40 aircraft.^[73] The carrier is being constructed by Cochin Shipyard.^[72] The ship was launched in August 2013 and is scheduled for commissioning in 2021.^{[74][75][76][77]}

A second carrier, INS Vishal, with a displacement of over 65,000 tons is planned and likely to be nuclear-powered with CATOBAR system to launch and recover heavier aircraft and unmanned combat aircraft. The project is in the design phase as of April 2015.^[78]

Italy[edit]

Current[edit]

2 STOVL carriers:

• Giuseppe Garibaldi: 14,000 tonne Italian STOVL carrier, commissioned in 1985.
• Cavour: 27,000 tonne Italian STOVL carrier designed and built with secondary amphibious assault facilities, commissioned in 2008.^[79]

Future[edit]

Italy plans to replace aging aircraft carrier Garibaldi, as well as one of the San Giorgio-class landing helicopter docks, with a new amphibious assault ship, to be named Trieste.^[80][81] The ship will be significantly larger than her predecessors with a displacement of 33,000 tons at full load. Trieste is to carry the F-35B Joint Strike Fighter.^{[citation needed]}

Japan[edit]

Current[edit]

4 helicopter carriers:

• 2 Hyūga-class helicopter destroyers – 19,000 ton (full load) anti-submarine warfare carriers with enhanced command-and-control capabilities allowing them to serve as fleet flagships.
• 2 Izumo-class helicopter destroyer – 820-foot-long (250 m), 19,500-ton (27,000 tons full load) helicopter carrier, launched August 2013 and commissioned March 2015. This is the largest military ship Japan has had since World War II.^[82]Izumo's sister ship, Kaga, was commissioned in 2017. In December 2018, the Japanese Cabinet gave approval to convert both ships into aircraft carriers for STOVL operations.^[83]

Russia[edit]

Current[edit]

1 STOBAR carrier: Admiral Flota Sovetskovo Soyuza Kuznetsov: 55,000 tonne Admiral Kuznetsov-classSTOBAR aircraft carrier. Launched in 1985 as Tbilisi, renamed and operational from 1995. Without catapults she can launch and recover lightly fueled naval fighters for air defense or anti-ship missions but not heavy conventional bombing strikes.^{[citation needed]} Officially designated an aircraft carrying cruiser, she is unique in carrying a heavy cruiser's complement of defensive weapons and large P-700 Granit offensive missiles. The P-700 systems will be removed in the coming refit to enlarge her below decks aviation facilities as well as upgrading her defensive systems.^[84][85]

Future[edit]

The Russian Government just recently gave the green light for the construction of the Shtorm-class aircraft carrier. This carrier will be a hybrid of CATOBAR and STOBAR, given the fact that she utilizes both systems of launching aircraft. The carrier is expected to cost between $1.8 billion and $5.63 billion^{[clarification needed]}. Once commissioned, she will replace Admiral Kuznetsov.^[86]

South Korea[edit]

Current[edit]

One Dokdo-class amphibious assault ship 18,860 ton full deck amphibious assault ship with hospital and well deck and facilities to serve as fleet flagship.

Future[edit]

South Korea believes it can procure 2 light aircraft carriers by 2036, which will help make the ROKN a blue water navy.^[87]

Spain[edit]

Current[edit]

Juan Carlos I: 27,000 tonne, specially designed multipurpose strategic projection ship which can operate as an amphibious assault ship and aircraft carrier. Juan Carlos I has full facilities for both functions including a ski jump for STOVL operations, is equipped with the AV-8B Harrier IIattack aircraft. Also, well deck, and vehicle storage area which can be used as additional hangar space, launched in 2008, commissioned 30 September 2010.^[88]

Turkey[edit]

Future[edit]

Imperial Navy Commando

TCG Anadolu L-408 is a planned amphibious assault ship (LHD) of the Turkish Navy that can be configured as a light aircraft carrier. Construction began on 30 April 2016 by Sedef Shipbuilding Inc. at their Istanbul shipyard and is expected to be completed in 2021.^{[citation needed]}

Thailand[edit]

Current[edit]

One offshore helicopter support ship: HTMS Chakri Naruebet helicopter carrier: 11,400 tonne STOVL carrier based on Spanish Príncipe de Asturias design. Commissioned in 1997. The AV-8S Matador/Harrier STOVL fighter wing, mostly inoperable by 1999,^[89] was retired from service without replacement in 2006.^[90] As of 2010, the ship is used for royal transport, helicopter operations, and for disaster relief.^[91]

United Kingdom[edit]

Current[edit]

One STOVL carrier: the 65,000 tonne^[8]HMS Queen Elizabeth was commissioned in December 2017 with Initial operating capability scheduled for 2020.^[92]

Future[edit]

The Royal Navy is constructing the second of its larger STOVL Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers, HMS Prince of Wales to complete replacement of the three now retired Invincible-class carriers. Prince of Wales was floated for the first time in late 2017 and is expected to begin sea trials in 2019.^[93] Each Queen Elizabeth-class ship is able to operate around 40 aircraft during peacetime operations, up to 50 during wartime, and will have a displacement of 65,000 tonnes.^{[8][94][95][96]}

United States[edit]

Current[edit]

11 CATOBAR carriers, all nuclear-powered:

• Nimitz class: ten 101,000-ton, 1,092 ft long fleet carriers, the first of which was commissioned in 1975. A Nimitz-class carrier is powered by two nuclear reactors providing steam to four steam turbines and is 1,092 feet (333 m) long,
• Gerald R. Ford class, one 110,000-ton, 1,106 ft long fleet carrier. The lead of the class Gerald R. Ford, came into service in 2017, with another nine planned.

Nine amphibious assault ships carrying vehicles, Marine fighters, attack and transport helicopters, and landing craft with STOVL fighters for CAS and CAP:

• America class: a class of 45,000-ton amphibious assault ships, although the lead ship in this class does not have a well deck. One ship in service out of a planned 11 ships. Ships of this class can have a secondary mission as a light carrier with 20 AV-8B Harrier II, and in the future the F-35B Lightning II aircraft after unloading their Marine expeditionary unit.
• Wasp class: a class of eight 41,000-ton amphibious assault ships, members of this class have been used in wartime in their secondary mission as light carriers with 20 to 25 AV-8Bs after unloading their Marine expeditionary unit.

Future[edit]

The current US fleet of Nimitz-class carriers will be followed into service (and in some cases replaced) by the Gerald R. Ford class. It is expected that the ships will be more automated in an effort to reduce the amount of funding required to maintain and operate the vessels. The main new features are implementation of Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) (which replace the old steam catapults) and unmanned aerial vehicles.^[97]

Following the deactivation of USS Enterprise in December 2012, the U.S. fleet comprised 10 fleet carriers, but that number increased back to 11 with the commissioning of Gerald R. Ford in July 2017. The House Armed Services Seapower subcommittee on 24 July 2007, recommended seven or eight new carriers (one every four years). However, the debate has deepened over budgeting for the $12–14.5 billion (plus $12 billion for development and research) for the 100,000 ton Gerald R. Ford-class carrier (estimated service 2017) compared to the smaller $2 billion 45,000 ton America-class amphibious assault ships, which are able to deploy squadrons of F-35Bs. The first of this class, USS America, is now in active service with another, USS Tripoli, under construction and 9 more are planned.^[98][99]

In a report to Congress in February 2018, the Navy stated it intends to maintain a '12 CVN force' as part of its 30-year acquisition plan.^[100]

Aircraft carriers in preservation[edit]

Current museum carriers[edit]

A few aircraft carriers have been preserved as museum ships. They are:

• USS Yorktown (CV-10) in Mount Pleasant, South Carolina
• USS Intrepid (CV-11) in New York City, New York
• USS Hornet (CV-12) in Alameda, California
• USS Lexington (CV-16) in Corpus Christi, Texas
• USS Midway (CV-41) in San Diego, California.
• Soviet aircraft carrier Kiev in Tianjin, China
• Soviet aircraft carrier Minsk in Nantong, China

Future museum carriers[edit]

• USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63) has a preservation campaign to bring her to Long Beach, California. Kitty Hawk is to be kept in reserve until USS John F. Kennedy (CVN-79) is commissioned in 2022.
• USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67) is the subject of a campaign for preservation at Newport, Rhode Island.
• USS Tarawa (LHA-1) has a preservation campaign to bring her to the West Coast of the United States as the world's first amphibious assault ship museum.

See also[edit]

Related lists[edit]

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Further reading[edit]

• Ader, Clement. Military Aviation, 1909, Edited and translated by Lee Kennett, Air University Press, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, 2003, ISBN978-1-58566-118-3.
• Chesneau, Roger. Aircraft Carriers of the Word, 1914 to the Present: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Naval Institute Press, 1984.
• Francillon, René J, Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club US Carrier Operations off Vietnam, 1988, ISBN978-0-87021-696-1.
• Friedman, Norman (1983). U.S. Aircraft Carriers: An Illustrated Design History. Naval Institute Press. ISBN9780870217395.
• Friedman, Norman. British Carrier Aviation: The Evolution of the Ships and Their Aircraft. Conway Maritime Press, 1988.
• Hone, Thomas C., Norman Friedman, and Mark D. Mandeles. 'Innovation in Carrier Aviation', Naval War College Newport Papers (no. 37, 2011), 1–171.
• Melhorn, Charles M. Two-Block Fox: The Rise of the Aircraft Carrier, 1911–1929. Naval Institute Press, 1974.
• Nordeen, Lon, Air Warfare in the Missile Age, 1985, ISBN978-1-58834-083-2.
• Polak, Christian (2005). Sabre et Pinceau: Par d'autres Français au Japon. 1872–1960 (in French and Japanese). Hiroshi Ueki (植木 浩), Philippe Pons, foreword; 筆と刀・日本の中のもうひとつのフランス (1872–1960). éd. L'Harmattan.
• Polmar, Norman. Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and its Influence on World Events, 1901-2006. (two vols.) Potomac Books, 2006.
• Sturtivant, Ray (1990). British Naval Aviation, The Fleet Air Arm, 1917–1990. London: Arm & Armour Press. ISBN0-85368-938-5.
• Till, Geoffrey. 'Adopting the Aircraft Carrier: The British, Japanese, and American Case Studies' in Murray, Williamson; Millet, Allan R, eds. Military Innovation in the Interwar Period. Cambridge University Press, 1996.
• Trimble, William F. Admiral William A. Moffett: Architect of Naval Aviation. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994.
• Wadle, Ryan David. United States navy fleet problems and the development of carrier aviation, 1929–1933. PhD dissertation Texas A&M University, 2005. online.

External links[edit]

• Haze Gray & Underway, World Aircraft Carrier Lists comprehensive and detailed listings of all the world's aircraft carriers and seaplane tenders from 1913 to 2001, with photo gallery.
• Ships That Mother Seaplanes: craft of the 'hush-hush' fleet may play a part in first trans-Atlantic flight. Popular Science monthly, February 1919, page 80, on Google Books.

The Imperial Japanese Army Air Service or Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (IJAAS or IJAAF) (大日本帝國陸軍航空部隊Dainippon Teikoku Rikugun Kōkūbutai) or, more literally, the Greater Japan Empire Army Air Corps, was the aviationforce of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA). Just as the IJA in general was modeled mainly on the German Army, the IJAAS initially developed along similar lines to the Imperial German Army Aviation; its primary mission was to provide tactical close air support for ground forces, as well as a limited air interdiction capability. The IJAAS also provided aerial reconnaissance to other branches of the IJA. While the IJAAS engaged in strategic bombing of cities such as Shanghai, Nanking, Canton, Chongqing, Rangoon, and Mandalay, this was not the primary mission of the IJAAS, and it lacked a heavy bomber force.

It did not usually control artillery spotter/observer aircraft; artillery battalions controlled the light aircraft and balloons that operated in these roles.

The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service was responsible for long-range bomber and attack aircraft, as well as strategic air defense. It was not until the later stages of the Pacific War that the two air arms attempted to integrate the air defense of the home islands.

• 1History
• 3Organization
  • 3.2Operational Organization

History[edit]

Origins[edit]

The Imperial Japanese Army made use of hydrogen balloons for observation purposes in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905^[1] and in 1909, together with the Imperial Japanese Navy and the Tokyo Imperial University, the Rinji Gunyo Kikyu Kenkyukai (Temporary Military Balloon Research Association) was set up.^[1] In 1910, the society sent Captain Yoshitoshi Tokugawa and Captain Hino Kumazō to France and Germany, respectively, to receive pilot training and purchase aircraft.^[2] Japan purchased its first aircraft, a Farman biplane and a Grade monoplane, which had been brought back by the officers from Western Europe.^[2] On December 19 1910, Captain Yoshitoshi Tokugawa in a Farman III conducted the first successful powered flight on Japanese soil at Yoyogi Parade Ground in Tokyo.^[1] The following year in 1911, several more aircraft were imported and an improved version of the Farman III biplane, the Kaishiki No.1, was built and flown in Japan by Captain Togugawa.^[2] In 1914, with the outbreak of war, the Japanese laid siege to the German colony of Tsingtao, aircraft from the army together with the navy conducted reconnaissance and bombing operations. The Provisional Air Corps consisting of four Maurice Farman MF.7 biplanes and a single Nieuport VI-M monoplane flew 86 sorties between them.^[3] In December 1915, a air battalion was created under the Army Transport Command, which became responsible for all air operations.^[4] However, serious interest in military aviation did not develop until after World War I. Japanese military observers in Western Europe were quick to spot the advantages of the new technology, and after the end of the war, Japan purchased large numbers of surplus military aircraft, including Sopwith 1½ Strutters, Nieuport 24s, and Spads.

Interwar Years[edit]

In 1918, a French military mission was invited to Japan to help develop aviation. The mission was headed by Jacques-Paul Faure and composed of 63 members to establish the fundamentals of the Japanese aviation, the mission also brought several aircraft including Salmson 2A2, Nieuport, Spad XIII, two Breguet XIV, as well as Caquot dirigables.^[4] Japanese army aviation was organized into a separate chain of command within the Ministry of War of Japan in 1919, and aircraft were being used in combat roles during the 1920 Siberian Intervention against the BolshevikRed Army near Vladivostok. The first aircraft factory in Japan, Nakajima Aircraft Company, was founded in 1916 and later obtained a license to produce the Nieuport 24 and Nieuport-Delage NiD 29 C.1 (as the Nakajima Ko-4) as well as the Hispano-Suiza engine. Nakajima later license-produced the Gloster Gannet and Bristol Jupiter. Similarly, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries started producing aircraft under license from Sopwith in 1921, and Kawasaki Heavy Industries started producing the Salmson 2 A.2 bomber from France, and hired German engineers such as Dr. Richard Vogt to produce original designs such as the Type 88 bomber. Kawasaki also produced aircraft engines under license from BMW. In May 1925, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Corps was established under the command of Lieutenant General Kinichi Yasumitsu, it was regarded as a branch equal to the artillery, cavalry or infantry,^[4] and contained 3,700 personnel with about 500 aircraft.^[4]

By the end of the 1920s, Japan was producing its own designs to meet the needs of the Army, and by 1935 had a large inventory of indigenous aircraft designs that were technically sophisticated.

By 1941, the Japanese Army Air Force had about 1,500 combat aircraft. During the first years of the war, Japan continued technical development and deployment of increasingly advanced aircraft and enjoyed air superiority over most battlefields due to the combat experience of its crews and the handling qualities of its aircraft.

However, as the war continued, Japan found that its production could not match that of the Allies. On top of these production problems, Japan faced continuous combat and thus continued losses. Furthermore, there were continual production disruptions brought on by moving factories from location to location, each transfer with the goal of avoiding the Allied strategic bombing. Between these factors and others, such as the restricted strategic materials, the Japanese found themselves materialistically outmatched.

In terms of manpower, Japan was even worse off. Experienced crews were killed and replacements had not been planned. The Japanese had lost skilled trainers, and they did not have the fuel or the time to use the trainers they did have. Because of this, towards the end of its existence the JAAF resorted to kamikaze attacks against overwhelmingly superior Allied forces.

World War II Aircraft[edit]

Important aircraft used by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II were:

Fighters:

• Nakajima Ki-27 中島 キ27 九七式戦闘機 (Type 97 Fighter)Nate
• Nakajima Ki-43 中島 キ43 一式戦闘機 隼 (Type 1 Fighter 'Hayabusa')Oscar
• Nakajima Ki-44 中島 キ44 二式戦闘機 鍾馗 (Type 2 Fighter 'Shōki')Tōjō
• Kawasaki Ki-45 Kai 川崎 キ45改 二式複座戦闘機 屠龍 (Type 2 Two-seat Fighter 'Toryū')Nick
• Kawasaki Ki-61 川崎 キ61 三式戦闘機 飛燕 (Type 3 Fighter 'Hien')Tony
• Nakajima Ki-84 中島 キ84 四式戦闘機 疾風 (Type 4 Fighter 'Hayate')Frank
• Kawasaki Ki-100 川崎 キ100 五式戦闘機 (Type 5 Fighter)
• Mitsubishi Ki-109 三菱 キ109 試作特殊防空戦闘機 (Experimental heavy fighter interceptor)

Bombers:

• Mitsubishi Ki-21 三菱 キ21 九七式重爆撃機 (Type 97 Heavy Bomber)Sally
• Mitsubishi Ki-30 三菱 キ30 九七式軽爆撃機 (Type 97 Light Bomber)Ann
• Kawasaki Ki-32 川崎 キ32 九八式軽爆撃機, (Type 98 Light Bomber)Mary
• Kawasaki Ki-48 川崎 キ48 九九式双軽爆撃機 (Type 99 Twin-engined Light Bomber)Lily
• Nakajima Ki-49 中島 キ49 一〇〇式重爆撃機 呑龍 (Type 100 Heavy Bomber 'Donryū')Helen
• Mitsubishi Ki-67 三菱 キ67 四式重爆撃機 飛龍 (Type 4 Heavy Bomber 'Hiryū')Peggy

Forward air control aircraft:

Imperial Commandos Star Wars

• Mitsubishi Ki-51 三菱 キ51 九九式襲撃機 (Type 99 Assault plane)Sonia
• Kawasaki Ki-102 川崎 キ102 五式双発襲撃機 (Type 5 Twin-engined Assault plane)Randy

Transports:

• Nakajima Ki-34 中島 キ34 九七式輸送機 (Type 97 Transporter)Thora
• Mitsubishi Ki-57 三菱 キ57 一〇〇式輸送機 (Type 100 Transporter)Topsy
• Kawasaki Ki-56 川崎 キ56 一式貨物輸送機 (Type 1 Cargo aircraft)Thalia
• Kokusai Ki-59 国際 キ59 一式輸送機 (Type 1 Transporter)Theresa

Reconnaissance Planes:

• Mitsubishi Ki-15 三菱 キ15 九七式司令部偵察機 (Type 97 Army HQ Reconnaissance plane)Babs
• Tachikawa Ki-36 立川 キ36 九八式直協偵察機 (Type 98 Reconnaissance plane)Ida
• Mitsubishi Ki-51 三菱 キ51 九九式軍偵察機 (Type 99 Reconnaissance plane)Sonia
• Mitsubishi Ki-46 三菱 キ46 一〇〇式司令部偵察機 (Type 100 Army HQ Reconnaissance plane)Dinah

Trainers:

• Tachikawa Ki-9 立川 キ9 九五式一型練習機 (Type 95 Model 1 Intermediate trainer)Spruce
• Tachikawa Ki-17 立川 キ17 九五式三型練習機 (Type 95 Model 3 Basic trainer)Cedar
• Tachikawa Ki-55 立川 キ55 九九式高等練習機 (Type 99 Advanced trainer)Ida
• Tachikawa Ki-54 立川 キ54 一式双発高等練習機 (Type 1 Twin-engine advanced trainer)Hickory
• Manshū Ki-79 満州 キ79 二式高等練習機 (Type 2 Advanced trainer)
• Kokusai Ki-86 国際 キ86 四式基本練習機 (Type 4 Basic trainer)Cypress

Other planes:

• Kokusai Ki-76 国際 キ76 三式指揮連絡機 (Type 3 Command-control/Liaisonal plane)Stella
• Kayaba Ka-1 萱場 カ号観測機 (Ka-Gō Artillery-spotter)

Organization[edit]

Army Aeronautical Department Sections[edit]

• Commander-in-Chief of Army Air Service Office
• Air Service Staff Department
• General Affairs and Administrative Department
• Inspectorate General of Aviation
  • General Affairs Unit of Inspectorate of Army Aviation
• Air Training and Instruction Department
• Supply Bureau
• Army Air Transport Department
• Army Air Intelligence Department

Operational Organization[edit]

Before World War I, the basic unit of the Army Air Service was the Air Battalion (航空大隊Kōkū Daitai), each consisting of two squadrons (中隊Chutai) with nine aircraft each, plus three reserve aircraft and three earmarked for use by the headquarters, for a total of 24 aircraft per battalion. The officer commanding the chutai was the Chutaicho, whose rank was usually that of captain. The commander's aircraft often had distinctive markings, often a partly or totally scarlet, red, orange or yellow tail.

In a reorganization of 1927-05-05, the Air Regiment (飛行連隊Hikō Rentai) was created, each consisting of two battalions, with each battalion consisting of up to four squadrons. Each Air Regiment was a mixed purpose unit, consisting of a mixture of fighter and reconnaissancesquadrons.

With the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, operational conditions favored the use of many small units, resulting in the creation of many independent Air Battalions (独立飛行大隊Dokuritsu Hikō Daitai) or even independent squadrons (独立飛行中隊Dokuritsu Hikō Chutai), each with its own distinctive markings.

In August 1938, a complete re-organization of the Army Air Service resulted in the creation of the Air Combat Group (飛行戦隊Hikō Sentai), which replaced all of the former Air Battalions and Air Regiments. Each Air Combat Group was a single-purpose unit consisting typically of three Squadrons, divided into three flights-小隊-shōtai of three aircraft each. Together with reserve aircraft and the headquarters flight, an Air Combat Group typically had 45 aircraft (fighter) or up to 30 aircraft (bomber or reconnaissance). Two or more Air Combat Groups formed an Air Division (飛行団Hikōdan), which, together with base and support units and a number of Independent Squadrons, formed an Air Corps (飛行集団Hikō Shudan).

In 1942, the Air Corps were renamed Air Divisions (飛行師団Hikō Shidan), to mirror the terminology for infantry divisions, but the structure remained the same. Two Air Divisions, together with some independent units made an Air Army (航空軍Kōkū gun).

Poemes a les dones. Throughout most of the Pacific War, the Japanese Army Air Service was organized into four Air Armies, with two more added in the final stages of the war:

• 1st Air Army – HQ Tokyo, basing in the Kanto Plain covering the Japanese home islands, Taiwan, Korea, Chishima, and Karafuto.
• 2nd Air Army - HQ Hsinking, covering Manchukuo
• 3rd Air Army - HQ Singapore, covering Southeast Asia
• 4th Air Army - HQ Rabaul, covering the Solomon Islands and New Guinea
• 5th Air Army - HQ Nanking, covering Japanese-occupied portions of southern and eastern China.
• 6th Air Army – on Kyūshū covering Taiwan and Okinawa

In April 1944, a reorganization of the Japanese Army Air Service occurred. Maintenance and ground service units, formerly a separate command, were merged into the Air Combat Group (Hiko Sentai). The flying squadrons of the Air Combat Group were re-designated as Squadron (飛行隊Hikōtai), and the ground units were designated Maintenance Units (整備隊Seibutai).

Other changes in the final stages of the war was the formation of “Special Attack Units” and 'Air-shaking Units', which were short-lived units with their own names (often taken from Japanese mythology or history) and markings, but located within existing squadrons. These units were specially designated and trained with the mission of air-to-air ramming of Allied bomber aircraft. They usually had their armaments removed and their airframes reinforced.

In the final phase of the war, the Special Attack Units evolved into dedicated suicide units for kamikaze missions. Around 170 of these units were formed, 57 by the Instructor Air Division alone. Notionally equipped with 12 aircraft each, it eventually comprised around 2000 aircraft.

The final reorganisation of the took place during preparation for Operation Ketsu-Go, the defence of the home islands in 1945 when all the Air Armies were combined under a centralised command of General Masakazu Kawabe .^[5]

Special Operations Forces[edit]

Teishin Shudan ('Raiding Group') was the IJA's special forces/airborne unit during World War II. The word teishin may be literally translated as 'dash forward', and is usually translated as 'raiding'. It may also be regarded as similar to the 'commando' designation in the terminology of other armies. Called a division, the unit was a brigade-sized force, and was part of the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service (IJAAS). The Teishin units were therefore distinct from the marineparachute units of the Special Naval Landing Forces.

'Giretsu' (義烈空挺隊Giretsu Kūteitai) was an airborne special forces unit of the Imperial Japanese Army formed from Army paratroopers, in late 1944 as a last-ditch attempt to reduce and delay Allied bombing raids on the Japanese home islands. The Giretsu Special Forces unit was commanded by Lieutenant General Kyoji Tominaga.

Strength[edit]

In 1940 the Japanese Army Air Service consisted of the following:

• • 33,000 personnel
  • Over 1,600 aircraft (including 1,375 first line combat aircraft).
  • The aircraft were organized into 85 Squadrons;
    • 36 fighter
    • 28 light bomber
    • 22 medium bomber
• Total military in August 1945 was 6,095,000 including 676,863 Army Air Service.

First Tachikawa Army Air Arsenal[edit]

The Japanese Air Army Force had one technical section, the First Tachikawa Air Army Arsenal, which was in charge of aviation research and development. The Arsenal included a testing section for captured Allied aircraft, the Air Technical Research Laboratory (Koku Gijutsu Kenkyujo).

The Army Air Arsenal was also connected with Tachikawa Hikoki K.K. and Rikugun Kokukosho K.K., the Army-owned and operationed aircraft manufacturing companies. much as the IJNAS operated its own firm, the Yokosuka Naval Air Technical Arsenal.

Army Escort-Aircraft Carriers[edit]

Due to the poor relations between the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy, the Army found it necessary to procure and operate their own aircraft carriers for the purposes of providing escort and protection for Army transport shipping convoys. These escort/transport carriers were converted from small passenger liners or merchant ships and possessed the capacity to operate from eight to 38 aircraft, depending on type and size, and were also used to transport personnel and tanks.

These vessels included the Taiyō Maru, Unyo Maru, Chuyo Maru, Kaiyō Maru, Shinyo Maru, Kamakura Maru, Akitsu Maru, Nigitsu Maru, Kumano Maru, Yamashiro Maru, Shimane Maru, Chigusa Maru (not completed), and Otakisan Maru (not completed) and were operated by civilian crews with Army personnel manning the light and medium anti-aircraft guns.

Uniforms and equipment[edit]

As an integral part of the IJA, the Army Air Service wore the standard Imperial Japanese Army Uniforms. Only flying personnel and ground crews wore sky blue trim and stripes, while officers wore their ranks on sky blue patches.

See also[edit]

• Teishin Shudan (Army air service airborne/commando division)

References[edit]

1. ^ ^abcHata, Izawa & Shores 2012, p. 1.
2. ^ ^abcFrancillon 1979, p. 29.
3. ^Stephenson 2017, p. 96.
4. ^ ^abcdFrancillon 1979, p. 30.
5. ^p.107, Skates

Bibliography[edit]

• Francillon, René J (1979). Japanese Aircraft of the Pacific War (2nd edition). London, UK: Putnam & Company Ltd. ISBN0-370-30251-6.
• Hata, Ikuhiko; Izawa, Yashuho; Shores, Christopher (2002). Japanese Army Air Force Units and Their Aces: 1931-1945. London: Grub Street. ISBN1-902304-89-6.
• Hata, Ikuhiko; Izawa, Yashuho; Shores, Christopher (2012). Japanese Army Fighter Aces: 1931-45. Stackpole Military History Series. London, UK: Stackpole Books. ISBN1-461-75118-7.
• Mayer, S.L. (1976). The Rise and Fall of Imperial Japan. The Military Press. ISBN0-517-42313-8.
• Sakaida, Henry (1997). Japanese Army Air Force Aces, 1937-1945. Botley, Oxfordshire, UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN1-85532-529-2.
• Skates, John Ray. The Invasion of Japan: Alternative to the Bomb. Columbia, South Carolina, USA: University of South Carolina Press, 1994. ISBN0-87249-972-3.
• Stephenson, Charles (2017). The Siege of Tsingtau: The German-Japanese War 1914. Pen and Sword. ISBN1-52670-295-9.

External links[edit]

• Mark Kaiser, 1997-98, 'Unit structure of IJA Air Force' (self-published)